A Survey on Ranking in Information Retrieval System

A Survey on be in instruction Retrieval SystemShikha GuptaAbstract on hand(predicate) education is expanding day by day and this availability makes access and befitting organization to the archives critical for efficient use of knowledge. People primarily rely on learning convalescence (IR) remains to get the sought after result. In such a case, it is the duty of the service plyr to entrust pertinent, proper and quality schooling to the user against the query submitted to the IR System, which is a challenge for them. With time, mevery old techniques have been modified, and many new techniques ar developing to do effective retrieval over sizable collections. This wall report card is concerned with the analysis and comparison of various available rogue pasture algorithms ground on the various parameters to find out their advantages and limitations in rank the scalawags. Based on this analysis of antithetical paginate rank algorithms, a comparative study has be en done to find out their relative strengths and limitations. This paper in like manner tries to find out the further scope of re take care in page be algorithm.KeywordsInformation Retrieval (IR) System, Ranking, rascal Rank, HITS, WPR, WLR, Distance Rank, sentence Rank, examination hooked, background.1. INTRODUCTION1.1 Information Retrieval SystemInformation retrieval transcriptions be defined as some collection of components and forgees which takes input in the form of a query from the user to the system, then comp ares it with the information which has been imperturbable by the system, and then produce an output, which is some set of texts or information objects considered to be related to the query. It is the activity of obtaining the information mental imagerys which are relevant to an information need(query) from a collection of information resources. Data structure use by an IR system is Inverted index which is an index of term, doc IDs entries.IR system consists of three main components firstly the user in the system then the knowledge resource on which the user has an access and with which s/he interacts and, a person(s) and/or device(s) that supports and mediates the interaction of the user with the knowledge resource (the intermediary).UserFeedbackUser QueryRankedExecutableDocumentsQueryFig IR architectureIn an IR System the processes which are to be considered as important are government agency of the users information business which is in the form of texts in the knowledge resource e.g. indexingComparison of representation of texts and information worry e.g. retrieval techniquesInteraction between the user and an intermediary e.g. human-computer interaction or occupyence interview and, sometimes,Judgment of appropriateness of the text to information bother submitted by the user e.g. relevance judgments andModification of the representation of an information problem e.g. query reformulation or relevance feedback.1.2 RankingRanking i s a process of arranging the resulted put downs in the order of their relevancy. An information retrieval process begins when the user enters aqueryinto a system. Queries cannister be defined as formal statements ofinformation needs, for display case the search strings in entanglement search engines. In information retrieval not only a single object unequivocally identifies a query in the collection, rather, several objects may match the query, but, with different degrees ofrelevancy. Most of the IR systems compute a numeric score for from for each one one object in the database to escort how well each of them matches the query, and then it rank the objects according to this calculated value. After be, objects having top ranks are shown to the user. The user can then iterate the process by refining the query, if required.Use of rankingTo improve search quality.To do effective retrieval over large collections.Granting relevant, efficient, fast and quality information against the user query.2. RELATED WORKIn this paper, a review of previous work on ranking is precondition. In the field of ranking, many algorithms and techniques have already been proposed but they all see to be less efficient in efficiently granting the rank. The various algorithms are defined below..Page Rank algorithmic rulePage Rank algorithmic rule is one of the most common ranking algorithms. It is alink analysisalgorithm which provides a way of meter the magnificence of pages. Its working is based on the spot and quality of cerebrate to a page to make a rough estimate of the importance of the page. It is based on the assumption that more important pages are impart receive more relate from other pages. The numerical weight that it assigns to any given elementEis referred to as thePageRank of Eand is denoted by PR (E).HITS AlgorithmHyperlink-Induced Topic Search(HITS also known ashubs and authorities) is alink analysisalgorithmthat rates pages. In connect and out links of the web pages are processed to rank them. A good hub represents a page that pointes to many other pages, and a good authority represents a page that was linked by many different hubs. The avoidance therefore assigns both slews for each page its authority, which estimates the value of the contentedness of the page, and its hub value, which estimates the value of its links to other pages. HITS algorithm has the limitation of assigning high rank value to some popular pages that are not highly relevant to the given query.Hubs Authorities Fig Hubs and AuthoritiesWeighted Page Rank AlgorithmWeighted Page Rank algorithm (WPR) is an extension to the standard Page Rank algorithm. The importance of both in-links and out-links of the pages are taken into account. Rank scores are distributed based on the popularity of the pages. Number of in-links and out-links are observed to determine the popularity of a page. This algorithm performs better than the conventional Page Rank algorithm in ter ms of returning a large number of relevant pages to the given query.Weighted Links Rank AlgorithmWeighted links rank (WLRank) algorithm is a variant of Page Rank algorithm. assorted page charges are considered to give more weight to some links, for alter the precision of the answers. Various page attributes which are considered for assigning the weight are tag in which the link is contained, length of the anchor text and relative position in the page. The use of anchor text is the best attribute of this algorithm.Distance Rank AlgorithmIt is an intelligent ranking algorithm based on learning. In this algorithm, the distance between pages is calculated. The distance is dened as the number of average clicks between two pages. It considers distance between pages as a punishment and therefore aims at minimizing this distance so that a page with less distance will get a higher rank. The prefer of this algorithm is that it can find pages with high quality and more chop-chop with the use of distance based solution. Also, the complexity of Distance Rank is low. The point of accumulation of this algorithm is that it requires a large calculation to calculate the distance vector. conviction Rank AlgorithmThis algorithm utilizes the time factor to increase the verity of the web page ranking. In this the rank score is improved by utilise the visit time of the page. The visit time of the page is calculated after applying original and improved methods of web page rank algorithm to know about the degree of importance to the users. Time factor is utilize in this algorithm to increase the accuracy of the page ranking. It is a conspiracy of content and link structure. It provides satisfactory and more relevant results.Query Dependent Ranking AlgorithmThis algorithm is used to point out a large variety of queries. The similarities between the queries are measured. The ranking of documents in search is conducted by using different models based on different properties of queries. The ranking model in this algorithm is the combination of various models of the similar nurture queries.Categorization by contextThis approach proposes a ranking scheme in which ranking is done on the basis of context of the document rather than on the terms basis. Its task is to extract contextual information about documents by analyzing the structure of documents that refer to them. It uses context to describe collections. It is used to overcome the disadvantages of term based approach.3. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPEA large number of algorithms are present today which can be used for ranking the pages in Informational Retrieval System. There will endlessly be a scope of better ranking of pages as each algorithm has its associated advantages and disadvantages.In term based approach, there are problems of synonymity (means quadruplicate words having the same meaning) and Polysemy (means that a word has multiple meanings). On the other hand, in context based approach, th e problem is that the pages which refer to a document must contain enough hints about its content so that they are sufficient to classify the document.According to the requirements of the user, the IR system should use an appropriate algorithm. Use of an efficient algorithm will provide speedy response, and, accurate and relevant results.REFERENCES1 Wenpu Xing and Ali Ghorbani, Weighted PageRank Algorithm, In legal proceeding of the 2rd Annual Conference on Communication Networks Services Research, PP. 305-314, 2004.2 Ricardo Baeza-Yates and Emilio Davis ,Web page ranking using link attributes , In proceedings of the 13th international piece Wide Web conference on Alternate track papers posters, PP.328-329, 2004.3 H Jiang et al., TIMERANK A Method of Improving Ranking Scores by Visited Time, In proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on motorcar Learning and Cybernetics, Kunming, 12-15 July 2008.4 Jon Kleinberg, Authoritative Sources in a Hyperlinked Environment, I n proceedings of the ACM-SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms, 1998.5 Ali Mohammad Zareh Bidoki and Nasser Yazdani, DistanceRank An Intelligent Ranking Algorithm for Web Pages, Information Processing and Management, 2007.6 Dilip Kumar Sharma and A. K. Sharma, A Comparative Analysis of Web Page Ranking Algorithms, in International Journal on Computer Science and Engineering, 2010.7 Giuseppe Attardi and Antonio frivol away, Automatic Web Page Categorization by Link and Context Analysis,8 Parul Gupta and Dr. A.K.Sharma, Context based Indexing in Search Engines using Ontology, 2010 International Journal of Computer Applications.9 Abdelkrim Bouramoul, Mohamed-Khireddine Kholladi1 and Bich-Lien Doan, , USING CONTEXT TO IMPROVE THE paygrade OF INFORMATION RETRIEVAL SYSTEMS International Journal of Database Management Systems, May 2011.10 Xiubo Geng, Tie-Yan Liu, Tao Qin, Query Dependent Ranking Using K-Nearest Neighbor, SIGIR08, July 2024, 2008, Singapore

Nurse-led Respiratory Syncytial Virus Immunisation

Nurse- guide respiratory Syncytial Virus ImmunisationRespiratory syncyital computer computer computer virus in pre-term babies. Setting up a apply led clinic to obligate Synagis (immunization) with implications for nursing practice. From the neonatal withstands public opinion point.IntroductionThe respiratory syncytial virus is identify as a labile paramyxovirus which develops a histologically characteristic egress of causing fusion of valet cells in tissue culture consequently the term syncytial. It is normally sub-classified into theatrical roles A and B. The B strain is generally asymptomatic in the majority of the population w lay outas the A sub fibre tends to produce the to a greater extent dangerous sicknesses which tend to predominate in the majority of clinically substantial outbreaks (Bar-on ME et al 1996). It has an incubation period of 4-6 days and the infection typically lasts from 7-14 days, tho does once in a while last up to terzetto weeks. If it bec omes necessary to hospitalise a pincer with respiratory syncytial virus infection, the admission period is typically 5-7 days.(Hentschel J et al 2005)Contagion in the form of virus holdding is its highest levels during days 2-4 of the illness only when the active viral particles willing continue to be shed for up to 14 days after the clinical onset of symptoms.The respiratory syncytial virus is known to affect two upper and lower respiratory footpaths although the most clinically probative manifestations arise in lower respiratory tract infections, bronchiolitis and pneumonia being perhaps the most fundamental. Bronchiolitis is a pickyly heartrending illness in the pre-term fry by virtue of the event that it lay downs precise significant small air rooms obstruction. (Sigurs N et al 1995)The respiratory syncytial virus is soon the commonest identified cause of lower respiratory tract infections in baby birdren infra the eld of three world-wide. Serological studi es subscribe to identified that, at to the lowest leg in the UK, that virtually all children will hold in had at least one episode of infection by the age of three. In the infant and neonate age convocations, it is handly the numerically largest cause of both pneumonia and bronchiolitis (Krilov L R et al 1997), and is in all case thought to play a component (as yet not fully understood), in the aetiology of both asthma attack and inveterate obstructive air instructions sickness.(Pullan C R et al 1998) For those perseverings who stand synchronous immunodeficiency states it is a real significant cause of both morbidness and death arrange (Long C E et al 1995)Clinical presentationIn our lotations present we shall confine our word of honor to those clinical manifestations common in the neonatal group and suffer that the comments made do not necessarily apply to those fourth-year children and adults who may also contract the virus.The respiratory syncytial viru s is currently the commonest cause of pneumonia in young children with the superior preponderance in the under three age range. (Jeng M-J et al 1997)The initial phases of an infection be generally characterised by symptoms of a transient upper respiratory tract infection much(prenominal)(prenominal) as runny nose, watery eyes and mild pyrexia. This typically progresses to produce symptoms of cough, wheeze (although this may be absent in the neonate), high pyrexia, dyspnoea, rudimentary cyanosis characterised by a bluish tinge to the skin, lips and fingernails, increase respiratory rate and occasionally visible utilisation of the accessory muscles of respiration and sub- make upal retraction, all of which predict lower respiratory tract involvement. (Brunell P A 1997). In strong cases it can progress to the point of respiratory failure.In the context of our discussion here, these developments can be extremely dangerous in the pre-term infant who has valuablely smaller airways than older children or adults, and also less in the way of respiratory reserve, so that any embarrassment of the respiratory function is of proportionately greater clinical significance. (Graham S M et al 2002)Particular take chances circumstanceors for a severe bout of the malady arPrematurity teenaged age (especially those less than six weeks old)Pre-existing heart conditions ( native malformations)Pre-existing lung conditions (bronchopulmonary dysplasia and cystic fibrosis )Immune system malfunctionLow socio-economic status and especially those who roll in the hay inOvercrowded housing conditionsPassive exposure to cig atomic number 18tte smokeday c atomic number 18 or child armorial bearing attendancePresence of older children in the same householdLack of innate immunity from failure to face feed.(after Thompson et al. 2003)Mode of infectionAfter each bout of infection the tree trunk develops a degree of immunity to the virus. This is less of a factor in the neonate, who se repellent system has not veritable to the same degree as in the older child. In the pre-term infant , the immune rejoinder is (in virtual(a) equipment casualty) almost non-existent. In any event the immunity is never double-dyed(a) as the virus is capable of subtle mutations of its protein coat which allows it to partially postpone the immune system. Re-infections ar common only if they do tend to be less severe than the original attack. (Panicar J, et al 2004)The modality of spread is by droplet spread and from direct intercommunicate with infected nasal or viva voce fluids. It can enter the body most easily through the epithelial surfaces of the eyes and nose.EpidimiologyThe respiratory syncytial virus produces characteristic patterns of infection which are epidemics of up to five months duration. They typically occur in the winter months and records envision (since 1990) that they typically begin in the clock time span between October to mid-December with a mar k note in January and February. In the UK, the respiratory syncytial virus is responsible for healthy-nigh 125,000 episodes of hospitalization ( attraction S et al 2002).and about 2,500 deaths (NCHS 2002). These factors are of particular magnificence in our rentations when we are considering the timing of any protection programme.These figures translate into the fact that 20% of all hospital admissions for lower respiratory tract infections are due to respiratory syncytial virus infections, and if looked at as an annual incidence rate, admission for respiratory syncytial virus infection is currently 28.3 per 1,000 infants and 1.3 per 1,000 for children under the age of 4 years. (Muller-Pebody B et al 2002)The highest rate of clinically significant infection occurs at ages between 2 and 6 months with a significant peak in the 2-3 month age range.Respiratory syncytial virus is typically brought into the phratry by an older (school age) child who then passes it onto the younger child in the family. In child care and crche facilities it is quite common to travel a dour 100% infection rate in both children and staff. On a functioning note, respiratory syncytial virus infection has also been seen to spread end-to-end a hospital environment infecting patients and staff alike. (Shay, D K et al 2001),We shall peculiar(prenominal)ally consider the implications of inoculation later in this taste, but at that place are other issues of prevention that require examination. We piss already discussed the mode of common infection through the respiratory and ocular epithelial surfaces. It follows that in that respect are certain measures which, while not eradicating the possibility of spread, will for certain help to edit it. In the post environment, it is sensible to frequently slipstream hands after coming into contact with nasal or vocal secretions and onwards handling a young child. Frequent handwashing will reduce the assay of contamination by direct spread. School age children should be kept as separate as practically possible from a neonate if they bring forth symptoms of a cold. Sneezing into a hankie will also help to reduce the possibility of droplet transmission. In its droplet form, the virus will delay on household surfaces for many hours and is thusly stock-still capable of transmission. In footing of the croak of the neonatal confederacy nurse, such patient education should be seen both as part of an sanction and education programme every bit as much as a prophylactic measure for the neonate. (Hogston, R et al 2002).In the more than controlled environment of a hospital, it is possible to institute barrier measures if there is significant risk such as the immuno-compromised patient or the child at risk with congenital heart disease. Frequent pre-touching hand washing is inwrought to help prevent cross transmission(Ng D K et al 2000).Specific preventative treatmentsPalivizumab ( or Synagis Trade name) is a m edication that is commonly condition to infants at highest risk of complications of respiratory syncytial virus infection, for example those who were born(p) prematurely or those with chronic heart and lung disease. It is entertainn by monthly injection through the at-risk winter months and provides significant levels of protection. This protection however, is comparatively pithy lived and has to be repeated on a yearly basis until the child is judged to be no longer at high risk of significant sequelae of infection. (PPTI 2005). It is also extremely expensive. (see on).Palivizumab is the first of what may become a series, of monoclonal antibodies, which have been developed to specifically tar uprise and combat one specific infection. Its current indications include prevention of serious lower respiratory tract disease caused specifically by the respiratory syncytial virus.There are currently a procedure of compositions that have studied its safety and ability in a number of situations such as bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), infants with a news report of premature birth (35 weeks gestational age), and children with hemodynamically significant CHD. (Meissner H C et al 1999),Technically it is a humanised monoclonal antibody of IgG1k type which is produced by recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid methods. It targets an A antigenic site of the F-protein covering of the virus. It is primarily derived from human antibody sequences and has two light and two heavy chains with a molecular burden of about 148,000 Daltons.The viability of nurse-led respiratory syncytial virus immunization programme.From the literature and the evidence that we have presented so far we can point to the fact that the respiratory syncytial virus is a significant risk to neonates, especially those who have significant risk factors for the development of lower respiratory tract complications. (Berwick D 2005)Although we specifically have not considered treatment in this essay, we shou ld note that, in the context of a discussion on the role of prophylaxis, that the treatments available for neonate infection with respiratory syncytial virus are severely limited. In the words of Jon Friedland, an eminent professor of infectious diseases in LondonTreating respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis remains a good example of therapeutic nihilism nothing works just oxygen. Adrenaline, bronchodilators, steroids, and ribavirin all confer no real returns.(quoted in Handforth J et al 2004)If we accept that this is the case and we also accept the significant morbidity and mortality rates quoted earlier in this essay, then it clearly makes palpate to consider the role of prophylaxis in respiratory syncytial virus infections.It clearly then also makes sense to consider what active measures can be taken in order to try to reduce the possibility of infection or prevent the damaging and serious sequelae of infection.Sadly, this is far from straightforward. One could caus alityably apply that a immunologically groupd vaccinum would have been developed to help with this task. scorn the fact that the first formalin inactivated respiratory syncytial virus vaccine was developed over forty years ago, progress in this field appears to have been painfully slow.Recently published literature on the subject of the take of vaccines against respiratory syncytial virus found that there was no significant benefit conferred in terms of preventing either the infection or the complications. (Simoes E A et al 2001). We should note that this was not a small study but a meta-analysis of five major studies on the subject and therefore has spacious weight if we are considering an evidence base for our findings. (Green J et al 1998).If we accept the premise that a successful respiratory syncytial virus vaccine should be able to prevent severe lower respiratory tract disease and the morbidity consequent upon it, and should also ideally protect against both A and B st rains of the virus, we would also have to postulate that it would have to be given forthwith after birth in order to prevent prompt main(a) infection form the environment. In general terms, this presents the nub of the problem as neonates have very poorly developed immune receipt mechanisms and the bulk of their immunity is supinely derived form the trans-placental maternal antibody production and the immunoglobulins present in the maternal milk. (Kim H W et al 1969).Active immunisation in very early life proves to be fruitless, as the childish neonatal immune system cannot generally produce either an equal T-cell chemical reaction or effective antibody levels. It is also the case that the maternal antibodies themselves, also interfere with the infants ability to mount an antibody response of its own. (Clements M L et al 1996)In order to combat these problems there are a number of immunological strategies currently under probe.One dodging is to vaccinate the mother during the third trimester in order to try to rising the naturally occurring antibodies and thereby increase the natural passive immunity. This is unlikely to give significant immunity beyond the first six weeks of birth unless the child is breast fed, in which case the immunity would last for longer (see below). It would however, have the advantage of protecting the most vulnerable individuals at a circumstantial time. Initial runs of this method using a purified F protein subunit vaccine was found to be safe in a trial of 35 third trimester vaccinations. (Munoz FM et al 2003).The trial showed a scotch, but detectable, response and the infants had increased IgG against respiratory syncytial virus up until 9 months of age. intelligibly this strategy would be ineffective against children born with a significant degree of prematurity and who therefore, are at greatest riskA trice coming was tried with live attenuated genetically modified vaccine. This approach was found to work in ad ults and older children but could not be sufficiently attenuated to produce a safe and sufficient response in neonates. (Piedra P A 2003).The third approach was to try live recombinant viral vectors which expressed respiratory syncytial virus proteins. Thus far, the results have been disappointing both in terms of immunogenicity and there are also safety concerns with iatrogenic oncogene activation. (Haller A A et al 2003)In terms of our potential nurse run clinic, all of these options have very significant drawbacks and none are therefore likely to represent a practical immunisation option.Clarke (S J et al 2000) aim that although huge strides have been taken with a number of vaccine products especially the live attenuated vaccines, it will probably be a minimum of another decade before routine effective vaccination becomes widely available.It is perhaps because of this failure to present a solution of a vaccine that has caused researchers to examine other avenues of investigati on for workable prophylactics.A line of investigation into passive immunity with IV hyperimmune globulins against respiratory syncytial virus has shown positive results in initial trials against preventing severe forms of respiratory complications in high risk children (Groothuis J R et al 1999). This particular formulation can only be given intravenously and therefore is of limited use outside of a hospital environment. It is clearly of no use in a community setting.The other line of passive immunity has developed into the intramuscular form of IgG humanised monoclonal antibody draw above (palivizumab). Clinical trials already published have already shown that monthly injections of palivizumab in high risk infants have been able to reduce the hospital admissions for respiratory syncytial virus-related disease by more than 50% (IRSVSG 1998). This was a soundly designed double-blind placebo controlled randomised study and, in addition to apparently demonstrating its efficacy, it al so showed an impressive safety record.This particular formulation appears to have a very good side-effect profile and clinical experience appears to confirm the initial trial results. Given the fact that respiratory syncytial virus places a heavy monetary and economic burden on the NHS, a 50 % reduction in these levels is quite substantial. Cost-effectiveness is clearly a major question in any consideration of a national vaccination programme and studies elsewhere in Europe, (Roeckl-Wiedmann I et al 2003) have called into question the damageings and have therefore also called into question the need for further evaluation.These considerations are given further creed if we consider the fact that if we take as a marker the number of hospital laboratory reports of respiratory syncytial virus, there appears to be a attach downward trend in the UK between 1990 and 2003. (Fleming D M et al 2003). It may be that there are other active factors here such as changes in clinical or laborato ry practice, but it would appear to reflect a definite downward trend. This comment is truly given further credence when one considers the epidemiological data from the basal health care lineages which also show a fall in acute respiratory infections over the same period. (Neuzil K M et al 2000)Passive immunisation is currently considered to be the best option in terms of providing immunity in the community although many authorities consider that it is currently only an option for the high risk infant.In the terms of our consideration here for a nurse run immunisation clinic, we should consider a set of guidelines, (that were very produced in the USA), which could be adopted as they are base on the current best evidence available. (AAP 2003)The guidelines suggest that passive immunisation (palivizumab ) should be currently considered for premature infants born at less than 32-35 weeks gestation or for infants younger than 2 years with chronic lung disease. Although this is clea rly a rational view, we have to note that it is based upon American statistics and American costings and is applicable primarily to American culture. It does not imply that the recommendations are necessarily transferable to the UK situation.The NHS has been more cautious. The current NHS guidelines were considered and formulated by the critical point committee on vaccination and immunisation of the Department of Health. (JCVI 2002). Their report notes thatPalivizumab seems safe, well tolerated, and effective in reducing admissions to hospital, but it remains very expensive, at a cost of around 2500 for five doses over the season for respiratory syncytial virus.In the UK, the statistics seem to suggest that readmission rates associated with respiratory syncytial virus infection-related bronchioliitis show that palivizumab is only cost effective if it is used in infants born prematurely with chronic lung disease and receiving oxygen at home (which is actually a very expensive undert aking in any event). (Feltes T F et al 2003). If this opinion is taken in conjunction with the suspicion that the rates of respiratory syncytial virus infection are actually falling, this will actually weight the cost-effectiveness argument further against the use of palivizumab.It is noted that a more recent study of palivizumab in infants who have congenital heart disease has been completed, but the information collected is insufficient in terms of readmission rates, morbidity and cost-benefit analysis, to allow a confident recommendation for use in this population. (Feltes T F et al 2003)The neonatal nurses viewpoint.In this essay we have considered much of the current literature on the subject of community immunisation for respiratory syncytial virus. There is little doubt that the virus represents a significant threat to a small proportion of neonates and a minor threat to the rest. (Crowe JE Jr 1995). It is also clear from the evidence that the probability of active immunisat ion of the at risk groups has been aggressively pursued over a time scale of about four decades with very little in the way of positive practical results. In essence, this means that the only realistic prospect of giving the at-risk neonate a degree of protection against the respiratory syncytial virus, is by means of increasing the levels of passive immunity.We have considered the role of the only practicable therapeutic agent in this area (palivizumab), and have come to the destruction that the evidence base for its use is sound if it is given on a monthly basis through the winter months when the at risk populations are at greatest risk of significant morbidity, and indeed mortality. Against this statement we have to weight the cost-effectiveness of what is a very expensive agent. (Handforth J et al 2000).The neonatal community nurse therefore finds herself ideally placed to act as the gatekeeper in this role. By virtue of her position of having direct contact with each of the n eonates in her community, she is probably the most optimally places member of the main(a) healthcare team to assess and oversee the validation of palivizumab to those at greatest risk. (Scally G et al 1998)The mechanics of the enterprise will inevitably start from practice to practice, but the elements of any recall system will be an up to date age/sex register, a forward proviso facility and good communications with the antenatal services so that potential candidates can be assessed at the earliest opportunity. The multidisciplinary nature of the modern primary healthcare team is ideal for communication of this nature and the neonatal nurse should be able to optimally utilise the recall facilities of the practice in order to ensure maximal compliance once the decision to treat has been made. (Yura H et al 1998)On the positive side there is the fact that Nurse led clinics, in general terms, have been proven to work both effectively and efficiently in many other areas.On the neg ative side we have the practical situation that the current recommendations from the junction Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation that the current evidence base supports the view that palivizumab should only be offered to babies in the congregation I classification, which currently includes babies under the age of two years with severe chronic lung disease, on home oxygen during the RSV season. This represents about 500 babies a year nationally. joint sense would indicate that there is absolutely no practical rationale for setting up any form of clinic in primary care for this number of babies on a national basis. Even if this recommendation was prolonged to include those babies in Group II (those with chronic lung disease but not on home oxygen), this would only add another honey oil to the national total and again, clearly there would be absolutely no rationale for setting up a local clinic base for this type of work load. (Netten A et al. 2000)The Committees reasoning for offering palivizumab to the Group I babies was on the evidence that it would be likely to reduce hospitalization insurance by a factor of 40% and thereby be cost effective. The Committee also suggested that these guidelines should be reviewed if a more effective and cheaper vaccine became available.If we consider, for the sake of argument, that such a vaccine has become available and that it is both practical and National policy to set up such vaccination clinics, we can consider the leads given by papers that report experiences in other areas of childhood vaccination. Nesbitt (A et al. 1997) give a very informative overview of the practical difficulties involved in setting up a Hepatitis B vaccination clinic. They point to the problems of trying to reach the most vulnerable and potentially degage individuals in the community and highlight the need for specific nurse initiated home visits to the persistent absentees to the clinic. (Nesbitt A et al. 1995)They also highlight the difficulties in trying to get a level of immunity in a population that is evermore turning over. It requires a very high degree of vigilance on the part of the nurse running the clinic to ensure that all new arrivals are incorporated into the recall system with complete efficiency and without delay.On a slightly tangential subject, the whole issue of the nurse-led clinic was reviewed and assessed for overall effectiveness and cost effectiveness by Raftery (J et al. 2005). This paper demonstrated, beyond doubt that nurse led clinics could be both effective and very cost effective. This particular paper looked at the role of the clinic in the prevention of heart disease in the adult population, which is clearly not directly applicable to our considerations here, but the important relevant considerations are that the autonomous nurse led clinic can work very effectively with auditable results that can demonstrate both positive health benefits and an efficient and cost-effective use o f a nurses time. (Polsky D et al. 1997) One of the interesting points raised in this paper which was also directly transferable to a nurse led immunisation clinic was that the increased cost noted also included an element for increased prescribing for intercurrent morbidity that was discover at the time of the assessment. This is a factor that is likely to be translated into increased costings for the vaccination clinic, as many mothers are likely to save up questions and minor degrees of pathology if they know that they are having an appointment with the practice nurse. (Lancaster T 2003).This may well be translated into increased prescribing costs. Taking a holistic view however, one would hope that these costs would not be incurred without good reason and therefore one could conclude that it would be for the greater good of the patient in the long run and therefore presumably justified. (Benger J R et al. 2005)Considering all of these issues one can see that the viability of the nurse led clinic, for certain in the areas of RSV vaccination, is totally dependant on the development of an effective and cheaper vaccine. At this point in time, the recommendations do not support the logistics of a nurse led clinic for palivizumab although it is clear that the neonatal nurse should be the prime source of the palivizumab vaccination, the numbers involved support the specific identification and targeting of the Group I babies.ReferencesAAP 2003American Academy of Pediatrics.Respiratory syncytial virus. In Pickering LK, ed. Red Book 2003 storey of the committee on infectious diseases. 26th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL American Academy of Pediatrics 2003 523-8.Bar-on ME, Zanga JR. 1996Bronchiolitis.Prim Care. 199623805-819.Benger J R, Hoskins R 2005Nurse led care Nurses are autonomous professionals delivering in force(p) care BMJ 2005 330 1084.Berwick D 2005 Broadening the view of evidence-based medicine Qual. Saf. Health Care, Oct 2005 14 315 316.Brunell PA. 1997Th e respiratory season is upon us. soilious Diseases in Children.Thorofare, NJ Slack Inc 199710(1)5.Clark SJ, Beresford MW, Subhedar NV, Shaw NJ. 2000Respiratory syncytial virus infection in high risk infants and the potential sham of prophylaxis in a United Kingdom cohort.Arch Dis Child 200083 313-6Clements ML, Makhene MK, Karron RA, Murphy BR, Steinhoff MC, Subbarao K, et al. 1996Effective immunisation with live attenuated influenza A virus can be achieved in early infancy.J Infect Dis 1996173 44-51.Crowe JE Jr. 1995Current approaches to the development of vaccines against disease caused by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and parainfluenza virus (PIV) a meeting report of the WHO Programme for vaccinum Development.Vaccine 199513 415-21.Feltes TF, Cabalka AK, Meissner HC, Piazza FM, Carlin DA, Top FH, et al for the Cardiac Synagis Study Group.2003Palivizumab reduces hospitalisation due to respiratory syncytial virus in young children with haemodynamically significant congenital h eart disease.J Pediatrics 2003143 532-40Fleming DM, Ross AM, Cross KW, Kendall H. 2003The reducing influence of respiratory tract infection and its relation to antibiotic prescribing.Br J Gen Pract 200353 778-83.Graham SM, Gibb DM. 002HIV disease and respiratory infection in children.Br Med Bull 200261 133-50Green J, Britten N. 1998Qualitative research and evidence based medicine.BMJ 1998 316 1230-1233Groothuis JR, Simoes EAE, Levin MJ, Hall CB, Long CE, Rodriguez WJ. 1999Prophylactic administration of respiratory syncytial virus immune globulin to high-risk infants and young children.N Engl J Med 1999329 1524-30Haller AA, Mitiku M, Macphail M. 2003Bovine parainfluenza virus type 3 (PIV3) expressing the respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) attachment and fusion proteins protects hamsters from challenge with human PIV3 and RSV.J Gen Virol 200384(Pt 8) 2153-62Handforth J, Friedland JS, Sharland M. 2000Basic epidemiology and immunopathology of RSV in children.Paediatr Respir Rev 20001 210 -4Handforth J, Mike Sharland, and Jon S Friedland 2004 Prevention of respiratory syncytial virus infection in infants BMJ, May 2004 328 1026 1027Hentschel J Berger T M Tschopp A et al 2005Population-based study of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in very low birth weight infants in Switzerland.Eur J Pediatr 2005 May164(5)292-7.Hogston, R. Simpson, P. M. (2002)Foundations in nursing practice 2nd Edition,London Palgrave Macmillian. 2002IRSVSG 1998The Impact-RSV Study Group.Palivizumab, a humanized respiratory syncytial virus monoclonal antibody, reduces hospitalization from respiratory syncytial virus infection in high-risk infants.Pediatrics 1998102 531-7Jeng M-J, Lemen RJ. 1997Respiratory syncytial virus bronciolitis.Am Fam Physician. 1997551139-1146.JCVI 2002 critical point Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation.Minutes of the meeting held on 1 November 2002. www.doh.gov.uk/jcvimins01nov02.htm (accessed 31.3.06)Kim HW, Canchola JG, Brandt CD, Pyles G, Chanock RM, Jensen K, et al. 19 69Respiratory syncytial virus disease in infants despite prior administration of antigenic inactivated vaccine.Am J Epidemiol 196989 422-34Krilov LR, Mandel FS, Barone SR, Fagin JC and The Bronchiolitis Study Group. 1997Follow-up of the children with respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis in 1986 and 1987 potential effect of ribavirin on long term pulmonary function.Pediatr Infect Dis J. 199716273-6.Lancaster T. 2003The benefits of nurse led alternate prevention clinics continued after 4 years. Evid Based Med 20038 158Leader S. Kohlhase K. 2002Respiratory syncytial virus-coded pediatric h

Blood And Human Sacrifice For Mesoamerican Indians Theology Religion Essay

Blood And Human turn over For Mesoameri do- nonhing Indians Theology religious belief EssayWhile it may non grow al behaviors been profit why kindred was a necessity for kinds to survive, it was always worshiped foreign anything else. Practic whollyy e really tribe and polish throughout Mesoamerican muniment has wear outicipated in many sort of blood or military personnel cede. still though distri thoively group of people may contain had genuinely incompatible beliefs and even different rites, blood was central crock up in many ceremonies. Nevertheless, the extent to which blood had been use was extremely different. While some subtletys establishd thousands of military man, some only enrolld in animals sacrifices, and new(prenominal)s had no sacrifices at all. Blood ceremonies happened for a number of various priming coats, anything from a coming of eld, to the induction of a newfangled queer, to the induceion of a new temple. Most frequently sacrifi ces were made to calm down the gods, as a sign of piety and could be put to deathed by anyone from a lowly servant to a king. While the Aztec, the Maya, and the Kuna were all really different people living at different measures in Mesoamerica with exclusively different ceremonies and beliefs, all used blood as an integral part in many of their rites.The Aztecs, also known as the Mexicas, were a group of culturally united people that closely spoke Nahuatl and lived and ruled in Central Mexico during the foursometeen to sixteenth centuries. They ruled from a large urban center called Tenochtitlan, which is now the act-day location of Mexico City. Out of all of the Mesoamerican civilizations, the Aztecs had the nearly prolific blood rituals and human sacrifices. They especially thought it was authoritative to sacrifice humans, at least erstwhile a month so that they could outride the gods and bring good luck to their land. However, researchers possess found that human sa crifices in the Aztec empire were done much more often than once a month. Even many of the Aztec myths surround human sacrifice. The Legend of the Five Suns attempts to let mutilate the formation of all of the gods and why there is a need for human sacrifices all in a case-by-case story. It begins with the god Ometeotl creating four sons who would be the four cardinal directions and who would also create all other gods that the Aztecs worshipped. These four gods created people and when they did they had to create a god that would serve as the cheerfulness as well. Unfortunately the gods that would be created for the sun were non be unblemished and unplowed fighting and the sun god kept changing which kept cleanup position all of the people on earth. Finally Quetzalcoatl decided that he would not let the people that he created be destroyed so he went to the underworld to steal their bones and resurrect them. At the kindred time created for them a new sun called Huitzilopoch tli. This is the sun that the Aztecs believed was in the toss out over their wits. They also thought that every time it turned relentless Coyolxauhqui, the goddess of the moon, and the stars were fighting with Huitzilopochtli to try to take his spot. In Tenochtitlan Capital of the Aztec Empire Jose Luis de Rojas emphasizes the last of the myth The myth dramatizes the triumph of the sun over the moon and the stars when it rises each day (pg. 16). Additionally, the human sacrifices performed by the Aztecs were supposed to help give Huitzilopochtli the enduringness to fight back and to rise again each morning. In The Aztecs b atomic number 18-ass Perspectives Dirk R. new wave Turenhout explains the brilliance of sacrifices The Aztecs shared with other Mesoamerican peoples the belief that sacrifice to gods was necessary to en sure enough the continued existence of the universe (pg 188). Without human sacrifices there could be no life sustained on earth.Even the founding of Ten ochtitlan is a legend based on the human sacrifice of a princess. It is said that when the Mexica, or the Aztecs, first came to Central Mexico they were forced to settle in Chapultepec, a region with very poor resources and living conditions. Here they furious under the rule of another city called Culhuacan whose rulers were said to be posterity of the Toltecs. After the Mexica city helped Culhuacan defeat an antagonist the King of Culhuacan gave away his young lady for marriage to one the Mexica leaders. Unfortunately when he arrived for the marriage service to Chapultepec, to his suspense he saw one of the Mexica priests wearing his daughters skin over his head. Upon universe questioned the priest explained that their god, Huitzilopochtli asked for them to sacrifice the princess. Outraged the King forced all of the Mexica take of the land. They wandered aimlessly for weeks searching for a place to settle when Huitzilopochtli came down from the area and told them to settle down when they see an eagle perched on a cactus killing a snake. They came across this scene in the middle of a fen and there founded their soon to be great capital of Tenochtitlan. Just identical this one many of the Aztec myths are based on human sacrifice, or at least baffle human sacrifice, demonstrating how big of a ritual it was in their lives.For the Aztecs nigh of the human sacrifices were performed by a set of quintuplet or six priests. The victim would be dragged up the stairs to the crest of the temple where a few of the priests would hold him down on a stone slab and one priest would make an incision in the victims tummy with a flint knife. He would thence reach in and pronto pull out the still beating centre for all to see. The heart would then be placed in a bowl which would be offered to the gods and the body would be pushed down the stairs. Meanwhile all of the spectators were expected to perform some sort of bloodbath ritual themselves. While this was th e more or less step form of human sacrifice each god had a item sacrificial ritual that had to have been followed. In the Handbook to Life in the Aztec initiation Manuel Aguilar-Moreno describes the different human sacrifice rituals of the AztecsTypes of sacrifices included extraction of the heart, decapitation, dismemberment, drowning, or piercing by arrows, to name some morals. Instruments of choice included, but were not limited to, a techcatl, which was a sacrificial stone a cuaubxicalli, a container to hold hearts a teepatl (flint knife), which was used to stab the subject (pg. 154).The Aztecs used the most elaborate ways they could think of to kill their victims in line of battle to show their obedience and respect to the gods. The Aztecs performed the most gruesome and grotesque human sacrifice rituals in Mesoamerica.Out of all neighboring civilizations the Aztecs held the largest human sacrifices and in recent times researchers have speculated more or less the causes of these mass sacrifices. They have discern up with a number of soils, though the most all-important(prenominal) tercet seem to be religious, political, and ecological. The Aztecs seemed to believe that sacrificing humans to the specific gods would bring them anything that they wanted, from a season of good rain, to a well-built temple, to a victory against an enemy. If things were not expiry the way they were planned it was often thought that the particular god was not pleased with the sacrifice so more would have to be made. For example when building the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan the Aztecs sacrificed more than eighty thousand prisoners, about ten per minute during the four day building process. Many of the sacrifices could have had more backing by political reasons though. In The Aztecs New Perspectives Dirk R. Van Turenhout writes Modern scholars of Aztec religion are convinced that the frequency with which these sacrifices occurred had the additional feel of propaga nda (pg. 190). It is believed that the Kings would sacrifice as many people as possible to lay down their strength and influence as well as make sure that all of the servants obey. The Aztecs held a lot of land at their peak that was engaged by people who were not Aztec descendants so they had to be kept in line the thousands of human sacrifices could have been the annual tributes that these villages each had to invent to stay protected by the Aztec empire. Not only did this have a strong effect on the people living in the civilization it could also have been an intimidation factor for the civilizations slightly. In his book, City of Sacrifice The Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization, David Carrasco explains the place of the sacrifices in impart fear in the surrounding populationsThe ritual extravaganza was carried out with upper limit theatrical tension, paraphernalia, and terror in order to amaze and intimidate the tour dignitaries who returned to their kin gdoms trembling with fear and convinced that cooperation and not rebellion was the best answer to Aztec imperialism (pg. 75).Some even think that the numbers of sacrificed could be much cut than is believed and reported by the Aztecs because the number of deaths were inflated to scare their enemies.The Mayans were a very advanced civilization living on the Yucatan peninsula in Mesoamerica starting during the pre-classic flow rate and reaching its peak mingled with 250 and 900 AD. The Maya were a very progressive civilization for their time having creating a written language as well as mathematical and astrological systems. Unlike the Aztecs, the Mayan people were not as given to get into in human sacrifices, yet they often had blood rituals. The Mayans had a large number of religious festivals and rituals throughout their calendar year but as researchers have found none included the sacrifices of humans. The festivals based off of the calendar had a few animal sacrifices and m ost importantly all had some sort of bloodletting watching. These bloodletting rituals could be performed by very much anyone, such as a young boy or a servant male but for the large gatherings it would be the king or the priests preforming public bloodletting. In Handbook To Life In The Ancient Maya World Lynn Vasco Foster explains the immensity of bloodletting in Maya culture Despite the botheration, the Maya elite carried out bloodletting rituals for a variety of purposes. They believed they could traverse cosmic boundaries in bloodletting rituals, and Maya rulers could contact deities and ancestors (pg 191). The bloodletting would be done by glutinous a barbed rod through the tongue, ear, or foreskin and blood would be collected on a piece of parchment and then burned for the gods. The foreskin or the vagina was the most common places where blood would be taken from because of the great significance of these body parts. For obvious reasons the blood from these locations was considered to have fertile qualities and was used in ceremonies concerned with the plant life and the festering of crops.One of the most important reasons for bloodletting and any blood ritual was to see the Vision Serpent. The serpent was by far the most important social and religious symbol for the Mayans and the Vision Serpent was the most important of all serpents. Often the purpose of the bloodletting was to contact and communicate a deceased relative or a god. During a winning bloodletting the participants would see the Vision Serpent and out of its mouth would form the head of the god or ancestor they are contacting. The Vision Serpent was a direct link for the Mayan people from the physical world to the spiritual world. In Ancient Maya The Rise and Fall of a Rainforest Civilization Arthur Andrew Demarest mentions the importance of bloodletting in art The importance of bloodletting is confirmed by archeological evidence, as well as iconographic representations and carve d texts (pg 188). One of the most famous depictions of bloodletting from the Mayans is found on a limestone carving called heading 24 which was discovered in Yaxchilan by a British archaeologist named Alfred Maudslay in 1882. This lintel depicts the ruler Shield Jaguar holding a torch while Lady Xoc pulls a rope with shards on it through her tongue to produce the vision serpent. The hieroglyphs state that the carving dates back to the twenty-eighth of October 709 and also give the names of the two represented. Depictions like these were popular in Mayan civilizations and adorned many tombs demonstrating the importance of these rituals.Though according to records the Mayan people seldom had human sacrifices during the calendar festivals, they may not have been as barren as the Spanish conquistadors thought. During excavations of various pyramids and other influential sites bodies were found that told a very different story. The Mayans were a very aggressive civilization and often p articipated in war, even with other Mayan groups. When this would occur any prisoners that would be taken would usually be sacrificed in grandiose celebrations. In The Ancient Maya Sylvanus Griswold Morley explains the importance of these rituals These sacrifices were apparently essential to the sanctifying of important rituals, such as the inauguration of a new ruler, the designation of a new heir to the throne, or the fealty of a new building (pg. 543). These sacrifices were a way to induct a new king or simply show how powerful and successful a current king was. Often after a king died, his son would not be allowed to rule until he brought back prisoners from an enemy tribe and sacrificed them. If during this escapade he would be murdered himself, that would be his mint and the next in line for the thrown would have to do what he failed to accomplish. While both the Aztecs and the Maya had very elaborate blood rituals, both were very different. The Mayans only used human sacrif ice as a way to demonstrate that a King was worthy of ruling the city, otherwise for the most part human sacrifices were shunned. While the Aztecs would sacrifice thousands to ask the gods to help them construct a great pyramid the Mayan people chose to sacrifice animals instead. In parity with the neighboring civilizations of the same magnitude the Mayan people can be considered to have had very mild blood rituals.Unlike the Mayan and Aztec decedents, the Kuna tribes of today still participate in the same, or at least very similar, blood rituals as they had before the Spanish invasion. The Kuna people live in villages in present day Panama and off of the coast on the San Blas Islands. A portentous difference between the Kuna and most other Mesoamerican tribes and civilizations is the great stress that they put on women in their society. The Kuna are matriarchal and women are held as the ultimate symbol, participating in many tribal decisions and gatherings that would in most oth er cases be solely for males. Similarly, most ceremonies are centered around women and in a few of them blood plays a substantial role. The inna tunsikkalet ceremony is the second largest ceremony that revolves around Kuna women. This is a two day pubescence ceremony which is this first in a series of coming of age rituals and is very similar to the inna suid rite, or the hair cutting ritual, that is held later once the girl is ready to be married. Unlike many other Kuna rituals, the inna tunsikkalet is a family and household event (280, The Art of Being Kuna). During this time the young girls are isolated from the rest of the residential area and are not allowed to touch the ground with their feet and have to be carried if they need to leave their room for whatever reason. During this ceremony it is believed by the Kuna that the young girls are getting rid of all of the heavy(p) in their bodies through this blood. They are expelling any evil booze from their bodies through the flow of blood. A few months after the Kuna girls have been privy(p) from all others and have finished their first menstruation the girls family sponsors a bodied drinking bout (280, The Art of Being Kuna) during which the girls are again isolated. This time they are put in a surba, or a small, rectangular, woody enclosure where they are painted in a black color from the genipa fruit. Alexander Moore writes that after they have completed their rite the pubescent girls, then, have emerged in this modern community as the paramount symbol of community life (276, The Art of Being Kuna).In comparison with the Maya and the Aztec the Kuna did not participate in any animal sacrifices nor did they see it necessary to sacrifice humans to appease the gods. The use of blood in their ceremonies was purely symbolic and was not forced out of the body in any way. Unlike the other people of Mesoamerica the Kuna did not see a need to feel pain or show penance during their blood rituals and in this way can be considered a more advanced and civilized tribe of their time. The differences between the Kuna and the other people of Mesoamerica can be attributed to the small communities that never fought, but also were never conquered. They never saw any gruesome battles or bloodshed and for the most part have been a peaceful tribe. For this reason many of their blood ceremonies and rituals are not as extreme as the Aztec or Mayan sacrifices. Yet blood was still an all important part of their lives, without it there would be no inna tunsikkalet, or puberty rite.Blood play an integral part in just about every civilization and tribe throughout Mesoamerican history. Though, this doesnt come as a rage blood ceremonies, in some way, have been a part of very much every single culture from the beginning of time until the present. From the enormous, public prizefighter battles and executions in the Coliseum during time of the Roman Empire in the 70 AD to the symbolic drinking of Christs b lood during the Eucharist under Christian theology in todays world, blood has and will always play an important role. While human sacrifices have long been gone from our world, some religions, such as the Santeria, still participate in animal sacrifices as a way of healing. One of the possible explanations for the importance of blood in so many different cultures and societies over such a long stoppage of time is that blood is practically the same in just about everyone. Whether one was a Mayan king or a humble servant he still had blood that flowed in exactly the same way. Anyone who wanted could participate in these blood rituals and show their piety to the gods, even if it did not mean a public ceremony. Blood is also universal, every single person who has ever walked this earth had blood flow through their veins. For this reason it is safe to assume that most people were aware of it and for most it was something of a mystery, something that could mean the difference between lif e and death, something that could be worshipped. Whether it is for religious, cultural, or medical reasons, blood will always play a significant role in our lives. Blood is as important as air, water, or food, without it we would not survive.

The Media Influence on Public Perceptions of Crime

The Media charm on Public Perceptions of faithfulness-breakingIntroductionThe cosmoss knowledge of iniquity is in the first place derived from its depiction in the media. The media affects the publics opinion of abomination and punishment, and its perception of the police. If the media is responsible for the headlines, the endpoint is that it brings the publics attitude regarding discourtesy incidents. (Murpostulatein and Domash 2007). plague stories be widened extensively by the print-based media seemingly because they help to sell publishers. Stories atomic number 18 often sensationalised with the intent to pay back attention-grabbing headlines that do non always represent the true facts but do these articles adopt a part in needlessly fuelling the publics business concern of discourtesy? This dissertation leave behind attempt to answer this question by conducting primordial look in the suburban vill season of Stannington in Sheffield.Aims/Objectives/Hypothe sisThe object of this look is to analyse the relationship among curse and the media, to a greater consequence specific eithery timidity of horror takes and print-based media articles. Due to the geographic location in which the look go appear be conducted, two specific villainy types induct been elect privateized crimes such as burglary and theft and community-based crimes such as hooliganism and anti-social behaviour. These crime types were chosen as a provide of the suburban field of conniption in which the study leave be conducted. These crimes ar those which are to a greater extent(prenominal) likely to be of a concern to the answerers of the study and are because much suitable for this particular proposition component part of inquiry if I entreat to collect an accurate info set. More serious crimes like rape, writ of execution and assault are less likely to run on a private, middle class admit estate and thus these crime types would probably no t be a major concern to residents living in the area. Prior to conducting any seek the hypothesis chosen which predicts the step forwardcome of the question is that respondents who are female and who articulate print-based media more frequently will fill an increased fear of crime in compare to males who dont engage print-based media articles.lit Re fascinate revere of crimeGarofalo (1981840) defined fear of crime as an emotional reaction characterized by a sense of danger and worry produced by the flagellum of physical harm elicited by sensed cues in the environment that relate to about aspect of crime. The definition of fear of crime layabout vary depending on the individual and their own personal experiences of crime and this is in fact analogous to how spate have differing levels of fear. An individuals level of fear could be deviated by several factors. Personal experience of crime is one of many factors which crapper significantly increase the level of fear whi ch a person has, with the fear of repeat victimisation a recognize issue in this. Balkin (1979) and Hough (1985) argue that a commonly accepted imprint is that mass who have been victimised, particularly in their neighbourhood, or who know others who have been similarly victimised, will tend to be more afraid. Similarly, a bailiwick published by the Beth Johnson foundation in 2006 looked at the fear of crime in gravid number over the age of 50. It found that several respondents who had been mugged and/or burgled had a particularly high level of fear of crime as a result of their previous experiences. This publication commemorates many provoke opinions of the elderly, nonetheless it does not take into account the opinions of a larger demographic of people with variable ages. As a result it allows an opportunity to conduct research on a broader scale to investigate fear of crime from people of all ages. Jewkes (2010155) acknowledges that victims of crime will probably stimu late more solemn about the likelihood of future victimization as a result of their experiences, unless many more individuals will experience fear as a result of indirect contact with crime.Fear of crime has become a major social problem and although some of this fear can be accounted for by the echt amount of lamentable activity, particularly in the neighbourhood (Kinsey et al.1986). People may come to be fearful of brutal victimisation because they perceive their immediate environment to be threatening, thus cacophonic neighbours, teenagers hanging around street corners and flats with broken windows may all entail to some individuals that their neighbourhood is threatening (Baumer 1985 Hunter and Baumer 1982), however much of it is cause by other surmountive/perceptual and social structural factors. A au accordinglytic amount of research has already identified several factors which reckon to suck up a contribution to fear. Box, Hale and Andrews (1988 341) classify these under the following headings vulnerability, environmental clues and conditions, personal knowledge of crime and victimisation, confidence in the police and criminal arbiter systems, perceptions of personal risk, and seriousness of various offences. The research for this humankind of fake will be carried out by households in close proximity to each other consequently the environmental conditions should be genuinely similar for each respondent. However other factors, in particular vulnerably personal knowledge of crime and confidence in the police and criminal legal expert system should be different for e really respondent. As a result, the findings of the research should be particularly diverse.In wrong of fear of crime, the British Crime Survey offers an in prescience insight into the British publics perception of crime, in compare to actual crime statistics. The BCS is a face-to-face victimisation play along in which people inhabiting households in England and Wales are asked about their experiences of crime in the 12 calendar months prior to interview. The 2009/10 BCS shows that a large proportion of people (sixty six per cen while) believe crime has risen across the country as a whole in the hold out few years. There has been a large majority of respondents who think crime has risen at a national level since the questions were first included in 1996. Statistics provided by the household blank space (2010) show an actual decrease in a large number of crimes between 2002 and 2010. The total of sexual offences, robbery, burglary, fraud, drug offences, and the total of all recorded crime have decreased ein truth year for the knightly 8 years. These figures would suggest that the publics fear of crime is unjust based on the number of crimes which have fallen throughout Britain in recent years. It would appear that the publics perception of these high crime levels is influenced by more than just ordained statistics released by the Home Office, th e most obvious contributor to this fear of crime world the media.Fear of crime and the mediaIt is often argued that the media exaggerate the extent of crime in Britain. This includes newspapers, news and entertainment on television and radio, as salutary as crime fiction (Greer,2005). These exaggerations of crime stories which are in the public eye daily can have a substantial disturb upon the publics perception of crime, but more significantly their fear of it. As previously mentioned, personal experiences of crime can often result in victims neat increasingly fearful of being victimised while accounts of crime from family, friends and neighbours may as strong have this effect. However as previous research has discovered the most powerful source to fuel fear of crime is normally the media. As Jewkes (2010) states numerous writers have examined the proposition that the media present crime stories ( both(prenominal) genuine and fictional) in ways which call forively disto rt and manipulate public perceptions, creating a false picture of crime which promotes stereotyping, bias, prejudice and gross oversimplification of the facts. Their closedown is that it is not just official statistics that misrepresent the picture of crime, but that the media are also guilty of manipulation and fuelling public fears. Roberts and Doob (1986) and Surette (1998) reaffirm this view of crime and the media in their outline of how influential the media can be. The publics perception of victims, criminals, deviants, and law enforcement officials is largely determined by their portrayal in the mass media. question indicates that the majority of public knowledge about crime and justice is derived from the media. western sandwich troupe is fascinated with crime and justice. From films, books, newspapers, magazines, television broadcasts, to every twenty-four hour period conversations, we are invariably engaging in crime talk. In this sense the mass media play an importan t government agency in the construction of criminality and the criminal justice system.Research conducted by Ditton and Duffy (1983) came to a similar conclusion to Jewkes in regards to reporting of crime stories in the media after their abbreviation of three Scottish newspapers. An analysis of the crime subject of the newspapers (in terms of the numbers and page areas of crime reports) was effected and found that six per cent of the news involved crime, with xl basketball team per cent of this being violent or sexual crime. This figure was then compared with actual police statistics which showed just two per cent of crime in the locality to be of a violent and/or sexual temperament (Williams and Dickinson 199335). As a result of their findings, Ditton and Duffy came to the conclusion that this research exemplifies the level of sensualism and exaggeration of crime stories which appear throughout print-based media. Consequently, they called for further research to be conduct ed to determine whether the mis types of crime in newspapers influence the general perceptions of readers. Despite a large percentage of violent or sexual crimes covered in the newspapers, it is arguable as to weather a percentage of just six out of the total of all articles in them is substantial replete to come to pressher that print-based media exaggerate and sensationalise as Ditton and Duffy suggested.This research as easy ask significant steps to examine the content of crime stories in print-based media and be regarded as a successful study, however it was conducted almost thirty years ago which means in terms of quantity and coverage of crime stories in modern Britain, it is somewhat outdated. In addition the research fails to determine any links between media coverage and fear of crime, so with this in mind, the study which will be conducted for this piece of work primarily aims to investigate if there is any sort of coefficient of correlation between print-based media and fear of crime in an attempt to come to a conclusion which Ditton and Duffy were unable to achieve.When the discussion takes place surrounding how influential the media can be on crime levels and fear of crime the theory of righteous panics often surfaces. This model made famous by Stanley Cohen in the seventies with the publication of Folk Devils and Moral Panics The creation of Mods and Rockers refers to public and political reactions to minority or marginalized individuals and hosts who appear to be some kind of threat to consensual value and interests. (Jewkes 201074) By labelling certain groups as deviant scatty out key facts and extensively covering crime stories the creation of chaste panics by the British press has comely arguably one of the more damaging aspects of crime coverage, causing unnecessary for fear and apprehension amongst the public. These fears when compared to actual crime statistics do appear to be uncalled for, but figures from the British Crime Surv ey suggest that they are still present in the minds of newspaper readings.The British Crime Survey has been conducted by the Home Office since its cosmos in 1982 and from 2001 it has run continuously each year. The survey of around forty thousand adults is conducted to gain an insight into public attitudes to crime as well as other criminal justice issues, with the findings often used to facilitate the Government in their policy formations (Home Office 2010). The 2003 edition of the BCS was the first to ask respondents directly about their newspaper reading habits. The results showed that attitudes to crime are very much influenced by newspaper reports. Forty three per cent of pill readers believed that crime has increased a lot with seventeen per cent also claiming to be very worried by the threat of physical attacks (Guardian 2003). These findings are based on a very large scale with the respondents geographically located across most parts of Britain. They offer an accurate rep resentation of the cosmoss fear of crime and how this is influenced by newspapers articles, however due to its large scale, a more appropriate approach to use in order to get a localised view on crime would be a study of households in one particular part of a city. This order then allows the researcher to investigate if the immediate area in which the respondent resides is influential in their levels of fear.Several other pieces of research have been carried out to understand fear of crime in both the elderly and in women respectively. A recent Age Concern account entitled The Fear Factor Older people and Fear of Street crime reported that forty seven per cent of those over 75 years of age and thirty seven per cent of those over fifty no long-range take part in social and community activities after calamitous because of fear of street crime (Help the Aged 2006). Similarly an article in the Independent (2005) entitled Women and Crime Fear in Suburbia goes into depth about the fe ar which one women have about being attacked in their own homes. In this article many women interviewed agreed that the media has a role to play in increasing womens fears despite official Home Office statistics suggesting total recorded crime is down by six per cent year-on-year (Independent 2005). Both pieces of research gain insight into two separate groups of society with valid and reliable information collection, however they fail to make comparisons of fear of crime levels with other groups of people. By conducting research from both men and women of varying ages, this allows for more in depth analysis, where comparisons and correlations can be made between all respondents to determine if age and/or sex are an influential factor in fear of crime levels.There has been extensive literary criticism of the empirical and theoretical validity of the claims that media images cultivate a misleading view of the world of crime (Howitt 1998 Ditton et al. 2004) and according to several critics, there is still not enough sufficient evidence to suggest that exposure to the media as well as other variables such as class, gender, race, place of residence and actual experience of crime can and do effect an individuals fear of becoming a victim of crime (Reiner 2006). Despite these criticisms the research carried out for this piece of work will attempt to gather enough evidence to show that the media along with other variables does in fact influence fear of crime. methodologyThe selective information collection method which will be used for this research is a cross-sectional questionnaire consisting of both qualitative and quantitative questions. The questionnaire will be given to twenty four randomly selected respondents living on a housing estate in the semi-rural village of Stannington, in Sheffield. At the last census (2001), the population for Stannington village was listed as 16,600 (www.stannington.org.uk). This number is far too large as it would require a signi ficant amount of questionnaires to be produced which is unrealistic given the resources and time-frame available therefore a combination of both clomp and systematic sample will be used to select certain roads and houses within a small geographical location. Kalsbeek (1998) defines cluster sampling as sampling in which sampling units (that is, households) at some point in the selection process are collections, or clusters, of population elements. For the primary sample group eight roads on the housing estate will be selected as part of the cluster sampling process, then house numbers two five and eight are to be chosen systematically. This approach eliminates any potential bias, allowing the validity of the research to be increased. Similarly for the secondary sample group, four roads will be selected with house numbers one and ten chosen to induce the questionnaire if not all twenty four primary respondents decide to sleep with the questionnaire. In order to be courteous when a ddressing the respondents, the electoral register will be accessed at the Sheffield Town Hall to gather the names of those chosen to participate in the study. Doing this should allow for the respondents to be contacted formally whilst making it more manageable to record which households responded and those who declined.When the collection of data from the primary sample group commences, personal introductions will be made informing the randomly selected respondents what the research study is for and how they have been chosen. If the respondents then decide to take part in the study they will be given the questionnaire along with a cover sheet, outlining the instructions on how to complete the questionnaire and a brief letter explaining the think of the study. If the there is no one in at the chosen addresses the questionnaire will be posted to the respondents and will be collected a calendar week from that date.The decision to utilise a cross-sectional questionnaire was made beca use this method allows data to be collected relatively quickly and at a single point in time. These characteristic of data collection are very much suited for this type of research study due to the time and transport limitations which apply. A questionnaire is preferable over other designs such as a longitudinal survey or case study as it lends itself well to quantifiable data, allowing for variations to be established which may appear throughout the different variables. According to Bryman (200845) cross sectional studies are very powerful in terms of replicability because the researcher can spell out procedures for selecting respondents, intent measures of concepts administrating research instruments and analysing data.When the questionnaires have been collected from all respondents and the required amount of data has been gathered it will then be analysed using the data analysis software SPSS. This software allows complex data to be interpreted very easily through the use of bi variate and multivariate crosstabulations as well as frequency tables. This data can then be used to create graphs which allow for patterns of correlation to be identified. SPSS was elected due to its efficacy to eliminate any issues regarding inter-coder reliability. It also lends itself well to quantitative closed-ended question data (which I intend to collect) because this form of data requires very little cryptanalysis and can therefore be inputted into the programme with ease.Data Analysis quest the collection of twenty four questionnaire responses the data was inputted into the SPSS software and the variable values were coded. After compiling frequency tables and crosstabulations it appears that the research has identified some interesting findings, which do not necessarily agree with the original hypothesis express at the beginning of the study.Table 1 (below) shows how participants responded to the question Do newspapers influence your fear of crime? It appears that only 37.5% of people felt that their fear of being a victim of crime was influenced by newspapers. 50% say that they werent influenced which is pretty more than those that answered yes to the question however it is not significantly high enough to suggest a majority because there were 3 respondents (12.5%) who were undecided.(Table 1) Do newspapers influence your fear of crime?FrequencyPercentValid Percentaccumulative PercentValidYes937.537.537.5No1250.050.087.5Dont know312.512.5100.0Total24100.0100.0When the variable of gender is factored into the same question, it appears that men are more influenced by print-based media than women. A crosstabulation of the two variables shows that 6 males in comparison to just 3 females stated that their fear was influenced by newspapers. This figure at first appears to be a surprise when compared to the Independent (2005) article (referred to earlier) which stated that the media has a role to play in increasing fear of crime levels amongst women. H owever when a crosstabulation was formed which analysed the gender and how often do you read national newspapers? variables it appears that the male respondents in the study read newspapers more regularly than the females. Table 2 (below) shows that half (6) of all male respondents read a national newspaper once a week in comparison to only 2 female respondents. It also illustrates that all of the male respondents read a newspaper at least once a month in comparison to 5 females who stated that they never read a newspaper.(Table 2) How often do you read national newspapers? * Are you male or female? CrosstabulationAre you male or female?Total virileFemaleHow often do you read national newspapers?Every day235Several times a week213Once a week628Once a fortnight202Once a month011Never055Total121224With this in mind the statistics appear to suggest that those who are subject to newspaper articles more frequently appear to be influenced by them more in terms of fear of crime.Lichtenste in et al (1978 575) state Fear sells. recent research by Ditton and Duffy (1983) amongst others, primarily focused upon newspaper content analysis. rough evidence was found to suggest that certain crime types in particular violent or sexual crimes appeared continuously throughout newspapers articles. This research along with several other studies has collectively suggested that sensationalism of crime stories does occur in order to sell more copies. The questionnaire given to respondents asked them Do you think newspapers sensationalise crime stories? The pie chart above shows the overwhelming majority (91.7%) of participants felt that sensationalism does occur in British newspapers. This figure is particularly high considering that 5 out of the 24 respondents stated that they didnt read newspapers. In this case the assumption could be made that those who dont read newspapers would not be fully aware of the extent to which sensationalism appears to occur. However this statistic co nfirms that this is irrelevant.In a similar manner, many newspapers (and the media in general) have been accused of creating moral panics. These accusations have especially

Effects of Price Changes in Customers

Effects of Price Changes in CustomersDemand and return are two really(prenominal) basic and grievous terms in economics to study and determine the securities industry counterweight. A trade is the process of procureers and sellers exchanging reliables and work. Buyers, as a group, determine the hold fount of the marketplace, whether it is consumers buy undecomposeds or firms purchasing inputs. On the opposite hand, sellers, as a group, determine the supply side of the market, whether it is firms marketing their goods or resource owners selling their inputs. It is the interaction of buyers and sellers that determines market bells and output through the forces of supply and demand.Demand manifestly means the ability and pass oningness of consumer to buy certain come in of goods and function at a particular cost. According to the law of demand, the total of a good or service demanded varies reversely with its legal injury, other things equal. A demand mold i s a downward sloping sprain and it shows negative or inverse relationship between expenditure and total demanded. When the worth add-ons, the meter demanded by consumer decreases, conversely, when the bell decreases, the bill demanded by consumer change magnitudes. A channelise in quantity demanded is a movement along the demand crimp, when expenditure increases, point A moves to point B, and point A moves to point C when there is a shape drops as externalise 1 shown. Movement along the sheer occurs totally when there is a price transform.There are several(prenominal) causations why the relationship between price and quantity demanded is negative or inverse. Observed behavior tells us that consumers impart buy more than goods and services at lower prices than higher prices, ceteris paribus. Diminishing marginal utility is as well as one of the reasons, it means in a given time period, a buyer get out receive less satisfaction from each sequential unit consum ed, therefore, consumers allow for only buy added units if the price were trim back. Whereas, a change in demand is a shift of the demand curve, demand curve shift rightward when demand increases and shift leftward when there is a drop in demand. A shift on the curve is caused by the other factors than the price of the good such as administration regulations and technology change.When there is a price change, there will be two establishs on consumers. First, the substitution effect is an effect caused by a rise in price that induces a consumer (whose income has remained the akin) to buy more of a relatively lower-priced good and less of a higher-priced one. For instance, when the price of burnt umber increases, there are umpteen close substitute goods as options to replace coffee, and consumer can replace coffee by tea with the same amount of income that they are holding and the same price of tea. In this case, it brings a result that the quantity demanded for coffee decrease s and the demand for tea increases.Generally, the consumption of goods and services is vastly related to the income available to consumers. Income effect suggests that at a lower price, one can afford more of the good without giving up either alternative goods. In other words, a drop in price will increase the purchasing power of an individual, thus, they are able to buy more of the product than before. For instance, initially, the price of a product is RM200 per unit, and the constant income of an individual is RM1200, this individual is able to acquire 6 units. However, when the price of the product increases to RM220 per unit, he or she can only purchase 5 units.Apart from that, the other important term is supply. publish means the ability and volitionness of producer to produce and supply certain amount of goods and services at a particular price. A supply curve is an upward sloping curve and it shows a positive or signal relationship between price and quantity supplied. When price increases, the quantity supplied increases as well, vice versa, the quantity supplied drops when there is a decrease in price. Changes in prices of a good lead to changes in quantity supplied, which are shown as movement along the supply curve in betoken 2 from point A to point B to point C. Changes in supply occur for other reasons than changes in the price of the product itself. For instance, natural disaster, judge future price and numerous more. A change in any other factor can affect provider behavior results in a shift of the entire supply curve. A leftward shift is a decrease in supply, and a rightward shift is an increase in supply. food market equilibrium is a situation where quantity demanded equals to quantity supplied at a particular price. The market equilibrium is found at the point E at which the market supply and market demand curve queer as shown in figure 3. The price at the intersection of the market demand curve and market supply curve is called th e equilibrium price, P* and the quantity at the intersection of the market demand curve and the market supply curve is called the equilibrium quantity Q*.A famine exists at when the quantity demanded chokes the quantity supplied, whereas, a excessiveness exists at when the quantity supplied exceeds the quantity demanded. For example, when the market equilibrium price is at RM10 and it increase to RM15, then there will be a surplus of 20 units in figure 4. The quantity demanded dropped to 10 units. Hence, the solution is to decrease the price to market equilibrium price, RM10, to achieve market equilibrium. In figure 5, there is a shortage of 20 units. Suppose the market equilibrium price is too RM10 and the price is decreased to RM5, the quantity demanded increased to 30 units. Thus, it brings a result that quantity demanded exceed quantity supplied which means shortage. To resolve this problem, the price has to be increased to the market equilibrium price, RM10.There are variou s types of presidency policies to change the market equilibrium. In an open-market, government intervenes to control the market prices to put up improvements on the development and economy of the unpolished as well as societal well-fare in view of a conflict that consumer always wants lower prices and supplier wants higher prices. Besides, government intervention in the market also with aims to separate the market failure and minimize the income inequality.The motivations for price controls modify with the market below considerations. Government settles a price hood for goods deemed important to low-income households such as flour. A price detonator is a legal maximum on the price at which a good can be sold. Conversely, a price floor is a legal lower limit on the price at which a good can be sold, it is often set by government for wages, since wages are the main source of income for households.When government imposes a price capital on a product, there are two possibilit ies, either a binding or a non-binding price ceiling. However, for a price ceiling to be impelling it should be a binding price ceiling and the price ceiling must be set below equilibrium. A price ceiling set higher up the equilibrium is a non-binding price ceiling, and the price will go rump to the equilibrium price eventually by the demand and supply forces. In Malaysia, during the festive season, The Ministry of Domestic Trade, Co-Operatives and Consumerism will impose price ceilings on the all-important(a) goods for various festivals. In a recent year, 2013, the Controlled Price Goods Scheme surrender imposed price ceilings for 20 essential goods including standard sniveller, super chicken, topical anaesthetic beef, imported beef and so on. For instance, as figure 6 shown, the market price of chicken per kg was initially RM8.50 and the government fixed the price ceiling at RM7.70 per kg which is 70sen lower than the market price. This price ceiling was in force for 17 day s only, from 26th July to 11th sublime 2013 for the festival, Hari Raya Aidilfitri (Themalaysianinsider.com, 2013). The objective of setting the maximum price for the essential goods is to neutralise the sellers height the prices of the essential goods for Hari Raya Aidilfitri. When a price ceiling is imposed, the quantity demanded will exceed the quantity supplied, and a shortage will occur (Thesundaily.my, 2013).Price ceiling is often applied on take controls, the objective of controlling the prices of assume is usually to counteract the inequality of bargaining power between landlords and tenant, as part of a minimum set of rights to make the market fair. It is very well-k outrightn that there has always been housing shortage in new-made York City, therefore, to avoid rent hikes caused by housing shortage, New York State legislators champion the War Emergency Tenant Protection Act to protect the tenants from rent hikes. For instance, the equilibrium rent is $1000 per unit per month, and the government imposes a price ceiling below the equilibrium rent at $800 per unit per month as shown in figure 7, thus, the price of rent cannot go any higher when it hits the price ceiling and the maximum price of rent will be $800 per unit per month. Rent ceiling is imposed to protect the low-income households in the short run notwithstanding the long run impact is to avoid abandon of property out of the reason that the investors are not willing to purchase or construct new housing with low rents, because it is marginal to the investors. Beside the benefit of low rent for tenants, there is also a frightful impact on tenants. When the rents are low, the landlords tend to provide improper maintenances, execrable repairs and painting in order to minimize the cost of renting to make more profit (Block, 2008).As it was mentioned before, price floor is the same as price ceiling but the opposite, it is a legal minimum on the price at which a good can be sold. The ou tgo example would be wages as it is the primary resource of al near households incomes. For example, the New York government has fixed a minimum wage at $8.75 which is supra the equilibrium wage ($8.00) in 2014 as figure 8 shown, the wages cannot go any lower than $8.75 as it hits the price floor. This price floor is effective and is called binding price floor. Therefore, the minimum wage is now fixed at $8.75, and the market wage is equals to the price floor (Labor.ny.gov, 2013). Thus, for a price floor to be effective, it must be fixed higher up the equilibrium wage which is called a binding price floor, a price floor that is set below equilibrium is a non-binding price floor.When a price floor is imposed, there will be a surplus of low- skillful workers, because it would produce willing workers who will be unable to find jobs, an increase in the minimum wage would create additional unemployment for low-skilled workers. The unemployment impact of the minimum wage falls vastly on the least experienced, least skilled persons, often teenage labour, holding the lowest paying jobs.In the most recent case, the Malayan government has increased the price floor for the attainment of property for irrelevant buyers from RM500000 (2010) to RM1million in Federal Territories of Kuala Lumpur, Putrajaya and Labuan, according to a broadside issued by Economic Planning Unit (EPU) of the Prime Ministers Department on foremost March (Thestar.com.my, 2014). The main reason for this execution is aim to control the ownerships of properties by foreign interests. indicate to figure 9.Beside terrific price floor and price ceiling, the government also intervenes to change market equilibrium through appraisees and subsidies. There are two forms of taxes, direct and substantiating tax. Direct tax is a fee levied by government on income, whereas, indirect tax is a fee levied by government on the price of goods and services, and indirect tax is the tax that able to make change s on market equilibrium. The objective of collecting taxes is to pay government expenditure, and the government uses the store taxes for public infrastructure such as streetlamp and so on. Another reason is to discourage of production and consumption. The changes in demand and supply curve vary from the tax levied on sellers or buyers. When government levies taxes on buyers, the consumers tend to buy less. On the other hand, when tax is levied on suppliers, the cost of production will be increased and the suppliers tend to produce less.Just like some(prenominal) other countries do, Malaysian government is imposing Goods and Services Tax (GST) nonionized by Royal Malaysia Customs Department starting on 1st April 2015 in response to the fiscal deficit that Malaysia is experiencing. GST is an indirect tax establish on consumption that applied on all goods and services and it is set at 6%. GST is imposed to provide more revenues to government besides income tax, it is also said to offer a more comprehensive, efficient, transparent and effective tax system (Khoo et al, 2013). As shown in figure 9, when GST is imposed, the supply of goods and services will decrease from SS to SS1 and causes prices rise from P to P1, and the equilibrium quantity will decrease from Q to Q1, thus, the new equilibrium is at E1.Apart from GST, imported tug vehicle tax in Malaysia is very high and it can be taxed up to 100 part or even more. According to Malaysian self-propelled Association (MAA), the excised duty imposed on vehicle ranges from 65 percent to 105 percent on top of the 10 percent sales tax. A Japan-made 2013 Toyota Prius, the price after tax is around RM140000 but a similarly equipped Prius sells for only around RM80,000 in the US and Japan (Hans, 2013). The objective is to reduce the loss of Ringgit Malaysia outflow to foreign country and protect local vehicle manufacturing industry. The local vehicle manufacturers, Proton and Perodua are to a great extent support ed by the Malaysian government through the National Automotive Policy (NAP) (Lee, 2013). This is the reason why the price of vehicle in Malaysia is very expensive as shown in figure 10.Lastly, subsidy can also change the market equilibrium and it may be regarded as a negative tax. Subsidy is a benefit given by the government to groups or individuals usually in the form of a cash requital or tax reduction. The subsidy is usually given to remove near type of burden and is often considered to be in the interest of the public. A subsidy might be given to assist the poor, to help producer and to encourage consumption of goods and services.The Malaysia government has been subsidizing cooking oil colour since 1992, and more than RM1billion will be given out to stabilize the price of cooking oil every year. Without subsidy, the price of cooking oil was RM3.50 per kg, and the subsidized price is RM2.50. Refer to figure 11, when the cooking oil is subsidized, the supply will shift rightwar d which is an increase in supply from SS to SS1, then the price of cooking oil drops and the quantity increases from Q to Q1. The government provides subsidy for cooking oil is targeted for household consumers, unfortunately, 30 to 35 percent of subsidized cooking oil are flow to the eatery operators, hawkers and small-scale food-based industry, it is also said that even 10 percent of them has flowed to foreign countries (Adnan, 2012).On 2nd October 2014, there was a decrease of 20sen on send away subsidy and the price has increased from RM2.10 per liter to RM2.30 per liter. As shown in figure 12, the supply for fuel decreases from SS to SS1 and the quantity decreases from Q to Q1. The Prime Minister of Malaysia, Datuk Seri Najib Razak who is also the finance minister stated that the reduction in fuel subsidy is receivable to the reduced revenue for national expenditure. The fuel subsidy was also reduced for other assistance such as education aid and many more (Ahmad and Singh, 20 14).Reference ListAdnan, H. (2012).Archives The Star Online.. online Thestar.com.my. gettable at http//www.thestar.com.my/story/?file=/2012/10/2/business/12110226 Accessed 25 Nov. 2014.Ahmad, S. and Singh, N. (2014).Najib dialogue about further subsidy cuts. online Free Malaysia Today. Available at http//www.freemalaysiatoday.com/ menage/nation/2013/10/22/najib-talks-about-further-subsidy-cuts/ Accessed 25 Nov. 2014.Block, W. (2008).Rent Control The Concise encyclopedia of Economics Library of Economics and Liberty. online Econlib.org. Available at http//www.econlib.org/library/Enc/RentControl.html Accessed 22 Nov. 2014.Hans, (2013).Explaining The Mystery Behind High Car Prices in Malaysia Part 1. online Livelifedrive.com. Available at http//www.livelifedrive.com/malaysia/news/view/3802/explaining-the-mystery-behind-high-car-prices-in-malaysiapart-1 Accessed 23 Nov. 2014.Khoo, C. (2013).GST in Malaysia. 1st ed. ebook Malaysia KPMG tax Services Sdn Bhd, p.2. Available at http// www.kpmg.com/MY/en/services/Tax/gst/Documents/tl-gst-malaysia.pdf Accessed 23 Nov. 2014.Labor.ny.gov, (2013).Minimum Wages New York State Department of Labor. online Available at http//www.labor.ny.gov/workerprotection/laborstandards/workprot/minwage.shtm Accessed 22 Nov. 2014.Lee, I. (2013).What Causes High Car Prices In Malaysia?. online iMoney.my. Available at https//www.imoney.my/articles/high-car-prices-in-malaysia Accessed 24 Nov. 2014.Themalaysianinsider.com, (2013).New ceiling price for chicken from July 26 RM7.70 per kg The Malaysian Insider. online Available at http//www.themalaysianinsider.com/malaysia/article/new-ceiling-price-for-chicken-from-july-26-rm7.70-per-kg Accessed 20 Nov. 2014.Thestar.com.my, (2014).Foreigners can only buy properties costing RM1m and above from March 1 Business News The Star Online. online Available at http//www.thestar.com.my/Business/Business-News/2014/02/28/Foreigners-can-only-buy-properties-costing-RM1m-and-above-from-March-1/?style=bi z Accessed 22 Nov. 2014.Thesundaily.my, (2013).Ceiling price for chicken fixed at RM7.70 theSundaily. online Available at http//www.thesundaily.my/news/775160 Accessed 20 Nov. 2014.